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This video lecture is aimed
at letting you know

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how to produce
coherent text while respeaking

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by extracting and combining

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the information conveyed
with the speakers’ material.

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First of all,

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I will try to recap the notion of text
according to text linguistics

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in terms of its relationship between
its different structural components

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and in terms of its relationship
with the context.

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Then, I will also try to recap
the semiotics of the audiovisual text

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and identify
verbal and non-verbal components,

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as conveyed
either visually or acoustically.

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This will allow me to provide
examples of strategies

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to concretely combine
the speech made by the speaker

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with all the materials
that he or she may make use of,

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in order to come
to a coherent target text.

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This is the agenda of this presentation.

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In Element 1,

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we have seen
how to repeat the words of a text.

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However, a text is not just
what a speaker actually says

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in terms of words
that are grammatically combined

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to create sentences.

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According to De Beaugrande & Dressler,

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a text is a communicative occurrence

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which has to meet 7 standards

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that correspond
to 7 textual characteristics.

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The first one is cohesion.

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Cohesion refers to the way
words are related to each other.

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It is the grammatical relations
between words.

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When subtitling,

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the speaker may make use of other tools
to make a text cohesive,

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grammar mistakes included.

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These mistakes are automatically filtered
by the audience.

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If repeated word for word,

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non-grammatical sentences, for example,
result

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in a more difficult text to understand
compared to a speech.

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This means you always have to keep an eye
to the text you have just produced

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to make sure that subtitles are cohesive.

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The second element is coherence.

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Coherence is the way
concepts are related to each other.

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It is the semantic relations
between concepts.

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When subtitling,

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it is important
that coherence is kept in the subtitles

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as you as a subtitler may have problems
understanding a text.

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In case of doubts,

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if you manage to follow
what the speaker says,

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it is going to be much easier

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to correctly report
the speech he or she makes.

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If an incoherent subtitle is produced,
it is very possible

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that the subtitler has made a mistake
in the understanding process.

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The third element is intentionality.

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Intentionality is the meaning
the speaker wants to convey.

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This may be different

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from the word-for-word reproduction
of a text.

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If you think of irony, for example,

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you always need to keep in mind

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that it is clear to understand
when listening to an ironic speech,

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but it may be not that evident

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when reading
at the same text written in the subtitles.

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In this case, you may think
of translating the source text

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into its corresponding meaning

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or make use of exclamation marks
or of all caps to signal it.

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The fourth characteristic
is acceptability.

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Acceptability is the way
the text satisfies the receivers needs.

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This refers
to technical and linguistic aspects.

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Technically,
reading speed is something binding,

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especially if the text unfolds
on two-liner subtitles.

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This means
that if the speaker speaks rapidly

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you may think of reducing
the number of words in the subtitles

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by omitting words or summarising concepts.

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Or you may be required to use tags
to identify a change of speakers.

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Or again you may want to simplify the text
or explain some parts of a text

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if you know
your audience misses some knowledge

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that the speaker gives for granted

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and that is shared
with the hearing audience,

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like sounds or other acoustically conveyed
information.

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The fifth characteristic of a text
is informativity.

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Informativity is the way
information is provided.

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It is strictly related
to the notion of acceptability.

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It is the way information is provided
to the audience.

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If the speaker has planned in advance
his or her speech,

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then information is normally provided
according to the theme-rheme pattern.

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This means that known information is used

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to introduce unknown information.

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In this case,

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repeating the speech
word-for-word is not a problem.

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It will effectively convey information.

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However,
if the speaker makes an impromptu speech,

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it may happen that the pattern is broken.

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The subtitler may think of providing
more information in the subtitles

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to make the text more acceptable
to readers.

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The sixth characteristic
is situationality.

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Situationality is the relevance of a text
in a situation.

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If a text is cohesive, coherent,
intentional, acceptable and informative,

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situationality is met.

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However, it may happen
that more speakers speak at the same time

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in a talk show or political session,

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or the speaker may speak over a video
during a conference or a class.

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In this case,

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the most relevant utterance
is to be reported,

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the other one or ones may be disregarded.

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Finally, intertextuality is the way
the text relates to other texts.

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This refers to similar texts

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but also to other sources of information
used in the live event.

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In the case of a speaker using slides
to support his or her speech,

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it is always important

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that the subtitles are coherent
with the slides

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or other types of on-screen text.

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In case of a mistake by the speaker,

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if the subtitler is super sure
the speaker has made a mistake,

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he or she can reproduce it word-for-word.

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However, in case of doubts,

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it is always wise to go for solution

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that is more coherent
with visual elements.

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Similarly, if a speaker reads a slide,

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it may not be wise to repeat something
that is already there as written text.

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In this case, the subtitler can send
a caption to audience

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telling them
the speaker is reading a slide.

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However, a text alone does not work
if it is not used in the right context.

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According to Halliday and Hasan,

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text is not the only element
that creates meaning.

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Meaning is also created by something
that accompanies it, the context.

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The context includes
the way something is said,

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also called paraverbal components,

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and all the non-verbal signs

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that help the text provide
its overall meaning.

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Without a context,

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the concepts expressed in a text
cannot be really understood.

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That is why it is very important
to understand its peculiarities.

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According to the authors,

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the context is composed of the field,
the tenor and the mode.

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Field is the shared experience
of participants.

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When a doctor talks to other doctors,

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he or she gives for granted
they know some things

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which he or she does not explain.

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The opposite would happen

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if the same doctor spoke
to a wider audience.

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Tenor is the role and relationships
among participants.

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If our doctor explains
a strategic plan against a pandemic

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during a live broadcast,

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his or her words will have
a different impact on the audience

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compared to the populist leader
opposing it, who makes the same speech.

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The mode is the way the text is organised
and its function.

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This is strictly related
to the previous two.

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While explaining the strategic plan
against the pandemic

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during a live broadcast,

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our doctor will organise his or her speech
in a very logical way,

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making sure
that nothing is given for granted,

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word choice included.

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He or she will speak clearly and slowly,

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as what he or she says is going to play
an important role in the citizens lives.

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Any audiovisual product communicates

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through the combination
of many semiotic components.

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Be they TV programs, conferences,

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parliamentary sessions,
meetings or school classes,

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they are all made
of acoustic and visual elements,

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that are either verbal or non-verbal.

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This picture shows
the semiotic components of a film,

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but the same features can be found
in any of the events

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I have just mentioned.

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In particular, acoustic elements can be
of verbal or non-verbal nature.

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The most relevant acoustic element
of verbal nature

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is the speech to subtitle
and its paraverbal characteristics,

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such as the speaker’s tone,
pitch, and volume of voice.

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In the case of elements
of non-verbal nature,

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we can differentiate between sound effects
like applauses from the audience,

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a bell announcing the voting time,

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the stop signal of an assessment,
a special effect, etc.;

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and music,
like the national anthem being played

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at the beginning
of every parliamentary session,

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a music to be guessed
by a quiz participant,

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the jingle of a presentation,

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the lyrics
of a song to be transcribed in class, etc.

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In some cases,

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these non-verbal elements
are super important,

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like the one just mentioned.

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In other cases,

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they are absolutely meaningless
and can be disregarded,

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like for example the footsteps of an MP,

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a sound accompanying a visual element
on screen,

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the music of a mobile ringing,

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the noise of a pen
falling from the speaker’s table

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or the shuffling of documents.

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It is the duty of the subtitler to decide
whether to subtitle them or not.

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With visual elements,

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we keep having
the same verbal and non-verbal dichotomy

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that we have seen
in the case of acoustic elements.

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The most relevant visual elements
of verbal nature

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are graphic elements

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like a question written on screen
in a quiz or talk show,

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the results of the voting
in a parliamentary session,

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the content of slides in a conference,
an exercise instructions.

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Other visual elements are
of non-verbal nature,

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like pictures in a talk show,
in a school exercise,

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in a session commemorating
an important political figure,

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or in the PowerPoint presentation
of a conference speaker.

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In case a video is played
during these contexts,

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the film code is also present.

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Worth a last mention are also
the way a person dresses,

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the role of a speaker in the context,

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the movements participants make and so on.

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Compared to what happens
in the case of acoustic elements,

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the subtitler here is not called to decide

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whether to render them or not
in the subtitles,

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as they are already visible.

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However, he or she has to decide

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whether to care about the audience
noticing them or not

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and having the time
to watch at them or not.

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In Element 1,
you have seen how to respeak a speech,

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which is verbal acoustic component.

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In case the speaker also makes use
of verbal visual resources,

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it is important to avoid redundancy.

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So, for example, if a speaker is reading
a slide containing a lot of text,

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avoid repeating the text in the slide.

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Prefer a caption instead,

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like one saying [reads the slide].

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This guarantees a smooth transition

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between the subtitles
and the slide the speaker reads.

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However, some problems remain.

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For example, the reader will not know

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when the speaker has finished reading
the slide.

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Or the slide may only contain
a few words of the quoted text.

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What to do to solve these issues?

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To let the reader know

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when the speaker has finished reading
the slide,

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much depends on whether
the subtitles appear

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as two lines bottom of the screen
with the slide,

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or if they appear as full text
on a different screen.

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In the first case,
which is the most common one,

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the subtitler will start respeaking

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as soon as the speaker stops reading
the slide

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and starts saying something else.

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By doing this,

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the reader’s attention is attracted
by the subtitles re-starting,

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popping up or scrolling
in the periphery of their view.

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In the second case, which may not be rare
in conference subtitling,

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it is always recommended to «educate»
both the speaker and the audience

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before the event starts.

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In particular,

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the speaker should always change
to a new slide

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once he has finished reading the slide.

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The audience should always keep an eye
on the screen with the subtitles

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to check whether new text is appearing.

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In case the slide only contains a few word
or sentences of the quoted text,

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better to keep subtitling,
thus avoiding non-effective captions.

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A final tricky situation
is that of a video played during an event

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and the video contains dialogue.

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Here, there is not consensus
in the professional community

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about
whether to subtitle the video or not,

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as the speech may not share

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the same characteristics
of the event you are subtitling,

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like a fictional video in a conference,
or a song in a school exercise.

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Some colleagues prefer asking the client
to think of pre-recorded subtitles

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before the event starts,

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otherwise they would not subtitle
the video

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so as not to provide
low-quality subtitles.

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If the client does not want to provide
pre-recorded subtitles,

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we suggest using a disclaimer
like [the video is not subtitled].

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Some other colleagues try to subtitle
the video

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for the sake of accessibility,

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despite the audio input may not be good
or difficult to subtitle.

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In this video lecture
we have analysed the text

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and its relationship with the context

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and the different
essential characteristics it is made of.

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This has allowed us to introduce
the main semiotic characteristics

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of an audiovisual product,

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be it a parliamentary session,
a conference speech,

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a TV program or other events that require
a personalised access.

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We have seen how much all of them make
the event heavily dependent

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on the verbal visual component
of the subtitles.

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This makes the job of the respeaker

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much more complex
than simply repeating what is said.

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It implies

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the real-time intralingual subtitler
has to provide subtitles

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that manage to smoothly provide
information,

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and avoid the audience get lost
with all the inputs they receive.

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To better understand this,
for each semiotic element,

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we have seen some strategies

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that allow for the subtitler
to provide information

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that is consistent
with the intended message of the speaker

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and with the expectations of the audience.

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In the homework session,

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you will be asked
to try and provide solutions

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for each situation where a mismatch
between the verbal acoustic

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and the other semiotic elements may occur

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because of a wrong strategy being used.